- Harappan Society And Culture
- Ancient Harappan Society
- Cracking The Culture Harappan Society Answers
- Compare Aryan And Harappan Cultures
Harappan civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations of the world. It was believed to be a hub of art and culture and architecture. The discoveries made at these architectural sights give us great insight into the lives & lifestyles of our ancestors. The Harappan Civilization may have been the first to use wheeled transport, in the form of bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today. It also appears they built boats and watercraft—a claim supported by archaeological discoveries of a massive, dredged canal, and what is regarded as a docking facility at the.
More than 4000 years ago there flourished a civilization in the north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent. It derived its name from the main river of the region and is known as the Indus Valley Civilization. A culture is also named after the site from where it came to be known for the first time. Since it was at Harappa that the relics of this civilization were first discovered it is also known as the Harappan civilization.
For a long time it was the general belief of the scholars that Indian history began with the advent of the Aryans in India. Later there came a change in this assumption. In 1921-22 A.D., under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India, Sir John Marshall, R.D. Bannerjee and Dayaram Sahani discovered the remains of an ancient civilization at Mohenjo-Daro (meaning ‘Mound of the Dead’) in the Larkana district of Sindh and in Harappa in the Montgomery district of Punjab, now both in Pakistan. In the words of Sir John Marshall,
CRACKING THE CULTURE – HARAPPAN SOCIETY Around the same time that Mesopotamia and Egypt developed civilizations, another civilization grew up in the Indus River valley region.
“With the discoveries in the Indus Valley we have to revise our ideas of the antiquity of the Indian civilization. As early as 3000 BC, India was superior to the western civilization in city organisation.”
ADVERTISEMENTS:
As a matter of fact the Harappan culture was urban in nature with exceptional skill in building and town-planning in their civic life. Major excavations undertaken at the Indus sites have given us a fair idea about other aspects of civilization including society, economy, religion, technology etc.
Sites of Excavation:
At the time of Partition of India in 1947, hardly forty settlements belonging to this civilization had come to limelight. But over the last fifty years, thanks to our researchers, they have brought into picture around 1400 settlements, changing the previous idea completely.
In terms of political boundaries of today, of these 1400 sites, nearly 925 settlements are in India and some 475 in Pakistan. These 1400 settlements are distributed over a very wide area. The area sprawled up to Sutkagender in Baluchistan in the west, Alamgirpur in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Daimabad in Ahmadnagar district (Maharashtra) in the South and Manda in Akhnoor district (Jammu and Kashmir) in the north. Thus the total extent of the civilization covered an area of about 1600 kilometers from east to west. In the northern and southern directions the area covered was about 1400 kilometers.
The total area over which the civilization flourished was more than twenty times the area of the Egyptian civilization and more than twelve times the area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations combined. In toto, it covered an area of about 12, 50,000 square kilometers and the settlements were mostly located on river banks.
Harappa is an important archaeological Indus site now in Pakistan. According to A.L. Basham, “Harappa was regarded as another capital of the Indus Empire.” This expression is rather loosely used for there is no concrete evidence to prove that the system of government was that of an empire. It is situated at a distance of about 170 kilometers to the west of Lahore. If R.D. Bannerjee discovered Mohenjo-Daro, Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahani is credited with the discovery of Harappa.
Anions the major Harappan sites mention may be made of Ganawarivvala, Rakhigarhi, Auri, Chunho-daro, Lohun-jo-daro, Noa, Rupar, Kalibangan, Dholavira etc. Each of these cities was surrounded by vast agricultural lands, rivers as well as forests that were inhabited by different pastoral groups, bands of hunters and food-gatherers.
Social Life:
The ruins and various evidences of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro along with other sites reveal a great deal about the socio-cultural life of the people of Indus valley. An analysis of the findings gives us sufficient information about their highly developed social life. The civilization itself was a glorious conglomeration of people of various origins. As the civilization centred around city culture the social life of the people bore touches of an urban influence. Their civic life was highly disciplined and quite scientific. The inhabitants preferred to live in a proper hygienic atmosphere, as is proved by their town-planning systems.
Origin of Race:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
On examination of skulls and bones discovered during excavation it is known that people owing their origin to Proto-Austroloid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean and Alpine stock lived in the Harappan cities. These town-dwellers lived a life of ease, peace and prosperity. S.R. Sharma states that “the social system of the Indus people was even superior to that of Egypt and Babylon.” In fact their social life was far better than that of their contemporaries anywhere in the world. As the people of Harappan culture maintained a high standard of social life, they obviously enjoyed a good number of amenities of city life. The chief characteristics of their social organisations are given below.
Food:
The diet of the Harappan people consisted of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Wheat was their staple food grain. Barley, date-palm, maize and rice were also popular foodstuff. Fish was commonly used. Non-vegetarian food also included mutton, poultry, chicken, pork, turtles etc. Milk was a favorite drink. Different types of vegetables and fruits seemed to have been known to the people of Harappan culture.
Dress and Ornament:
Since the climate of the area was tropical, naturally people preferred to use garments conductive to tropical climate. Several figurines of males and females have been found at the excavation sites that give us a clear idea about their costumes. Cotton fabrics were in common use though use of wool was not unknown to them.
Their dress habits were simple. One statue shows the use of two pieces of cloth—one for the upper portion and the other for the lower portion of the body. The upper garment was like a modern shawl that was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right so as to leave the right arm free and in the sitting posture it came down up to the feet. The lower garment was like a modern dhoti. There was very little difference in the garments worn by males and females.
Both men and women of the Harappan society were fond of wearing ornaments. There were some common ornaments that were used by both. They included necklaces, fillets, armlets, rings and bangles. Ladies used some specific ornaments like girdles, nose-studs, ear-rings and anklets. There was a great variety in the shape and design of these ornaments. The wealthy people used ornaments made of gold, silver, ivory and other semi-precious stones whereas ornaments of the poor were made of copper, bronze, shell and terracotta. Beads of various designs and metals were also used in large numbers.
Attire:
The Harappan people were fond of luxury and comfort. The discovery of ivory combs, bronze mirrors and razors shows the interest of people in the use of their own attire. Both men and women liked stylish combing of hair. They combed their hair into different braids and men kept short beards and long whiskers and sometimes the upper lip was shaved. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled into a knot on the top of the head.
People knew the art of toilet and cosmetics. Various toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone have been discovered at Harappan sites. Ladies were well-acquainted with toilet culture. It appears that they knew the use of collyrium, powder, cream and possibly lipstick too. All these go on to prove that the Harappans were quite conscious of their own beauty.
Amusement and Recreation:
Since the people of Harappan culture were city-dwellers they had various pastimes for useful recreation of their leisure. They entertained themselves by playing indoor games like dicing, dancing and singing. Further hunting, fishing, arranging animal and bird fights formed other sources of amusement.
From the excavation sites a number of toys made of copper, ivory, clay and other materials have come to light. These toys were made in the shape of human beings and animals like bulls, monkeys etc. Clay-modeling was another major pastime of the Harappans. The Harappans used to engage themselves through these constructive hobbies.
Household items:
A number of household items used by the Harappans have been unearthed at different sites. These items were made of gold, silver, copper and bronze. One interesting thing to be noted is that these people did not know the use of iron. Earthen vessels of exquisite designs prepared by the potter’s wheel show the technical skill of the people. The surface of these articles was fine and polished and they were at times ornamented with the figures of birds, animals, trees and clay-knobs.
Among the earthen pots the commonly used articles included plates, dish with stand, bowls, goblets, pans, saucers, jars, pitchers, jars with covers etc. Many tools of practical utility like needle, axe, saw, sickle, knife, fishing hook, bed-stead, stool and chair have been found. This shows that they used cots, mats and reeds. For children clay figures of men, women and clay-carts with wheels were made in large numbers.
These household items showthe Harappans artistic bent of mind. They made paintings of black on red ware. Several seals of terracotta with artistic designs bear evidence of their refined taste and skill. Pictorial motifs and geometrical designs found on various articles point out the artistic skill of Harappan inhabitants.
Weapons of War:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Although the Harappans were a peace loving people they used various weapons for self-defence. These weapons included axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows. Swords, shields, helmets or any such protective gears were not used. These weapons were made of copper or bronze. Their inferior quality suggests that the Harappan soldiers were not quite sophisticated in warfare.
Medicines:
We have little knowledge about the drugs and medicines used by the Harappan people. The horns of deer and antelope were used as medicines. The use of ‘neem’ as an anti-psoric medicine was also known to them. Their limited medical knowledge helped them to cure themselves to some extent.
Domestication of animals:
The Harappan people knew the art of domesticating animals for their personal use. These animals were bulls, buffaloes, sheep, pigs, dogs, elephants and camels. They used carts drawn by bullocks. It is doubtful whether horse was domesticated. It is evident that they were familiar with wild animals like tigers, bears, rhinoceros, squirrels and monkeys. The idea of domesticating animals for human use speaks of the Harappans’ advanced thinking in this regard.
Disposal of the Dead:
Harappan Society And Culture
Different methods of disposing the dead were practiced by the people of Harappan culture. The common method of disposing the dead body was burning the corpse. The second method was to leave the dead in dense jungles or other inaccessible places to be eaten up by birds and animals. The bones were collected afterwards. Another method was to bury the dead.
The absence of cemetery at Mohenjo-Daro and a large burial ground found at Harappa show that uniform burial rites were not followed everywhere. According to Sir John Marshall, the process of burning was very common to the people. The ashes were sometimes placed in the urns and at other times un burnt bones were collected in jars. Earthen pots containing food grains were placed in the grave and in some cases the body was buried with ornaments.
Social Stratification:
The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three sections:
(a) The elite class associated with the citadel,
(b) A well-to-do middle class and
(c) A relatively weaker class occupying the lower towns that were generally fortified.
Some of the craftsmen and labourers, however, resided outside the fortified area. We do not know whether these divisions were based purely on economic factors or had a socio-religious basis. At Kalibangan site of Harappan culture it appears that the priests lived in the upper part of the citadel and performed rituals on altars of fire in the lower part of it.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The different aspects of Harappan society discussed above show that the people led a highly developed, peaceful, fun-loving and comfortable life. Social rules and norms were well regulated and their mode of living was well disciplined. As a result, social life was simple and contented.
Women in the Harappan society seemed to enjoy high respect. The worship of Mother Goddess stands as clear proof to the esteemed position of Harappan women. They were treated equally by their male counterparts.
Religious belief:
The affluent Harappan society was deeply religious in nature. In the absence of ruins of any temple, altar or statue of gods, we have to rely only on figurines and seals of religious significance to have an idea regarding their religious belief. Generally, there are two aspects of a religion.
They are:
(a) The conceptual or philosophical aspect and
(b) The practical or ritualistic aspect.
The conceptual part of religion is generally found in the metaphysical texts whereas the ritualistic part is found in the material methods. Since the scripts on the Harappan seals have not yet been deciphered by the scholars, it is difficult to know the metaphysical aspect of their religion. But the abundance of material remains from the Harappan sites help us to form ideas about the practical aspect of their religious faith. Figurines similar to those of the Harappan people have been found in many countries between Persia and Aegean Sea.
From these available sources we can form an idea about their religion:
1. Worship of the Mother Goddess.
2. Worship of a male god, probably Shiva or Pasupatin.
3. Worship of animals in natural or semi-human form.
4. Worship of trees and plants in their natural state and the spirits dwelling in them.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
5. Worship of inanimate stones or other objects in the form of linga or yoni symbols.
6. Worship of sacred incense-burners or chrematheism.
7. De-monophobia or faith in magic and charms.
8. Practice of Yoga. (Source : Ancient India, NCERT)
Worship of Mother Goddess:
One of the most important aspects of Harappan religion was worship of Mother Goddess. A large number of terracotta figurines in various postures have been unearthed from the ruins. These statues are believed to be of Mother Goddess. Most of these images are shown wearing saree, necklace and waist band.
One interesting seal from Harappa shows one female figure standing upside down with outstretched legs and a tree sprouting from her womb. Scholars opine that she symbolizes the Goddess of Fertility or Plant Goddess. In another seal we find a female figure with upraised arms before whom stands a man brandishing a sword.
This posture leads the historians to conclude that some form of sacrifice was prevalent among the Harappans. Besides, earthen images of pregnant women, women carrying children etc. are ample proof of worship of the Mother Goddess because she was believed to be the source of creation and energy.
Worship of a male god:
Another prominent religious belief among the Harappans was the worship of a male god. In one particular seal we find a male figure meditating with a headgear adorned with horns of a buffalo being surrounded by animals like elephants, tigers, deer etc. This explains to a certain extent the later concept of the master of animals known as “Pasupatin”. The images of bulls or oxen on the Harappan seals also prove the point that they were worshippers of Shiva.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Another seal describes the picture of a god in the same yogic posture with a Naga kneeling in prayer before him with uplifted hands on either side. All these findings clearly point towards- the concept of later Shiva worship in Hindu religion.
Animism:
Animal worship was another typical feature of Harappan religious belief. Worship of certain common animals like elephants, rhinoceros, tigers and bulls was quite prevalent. Worship of the Naga deity or serpent worship was equally in vogue. But among all animals, bull worship was most prominent. The bull was usually worshipped, associated with Lord Shiva. But the absence of cow on the seals is very conspicuous. There is also the image of an imaginary unicorn in some seals. All these animals were worshipped with reverence by the Harappan people.
Worship of trees and plants:
In addition to the worship of Shiva and Shakti both in human and symbolic forms, the Harappan people followed the practice of the worship of stones, trees and animals because they believed that these were the abode of various spirits, good or bad. Pictures of trees on the seals, in some cases horned animals and human beings standing under trees, a deity standing between two branches of a peepal tree, are clear evidences of tree-worship. There are stray references with regard to the worship of Neem and Banyan trees.
The Harappans had great regard for water. They regarded water to be very sacred and purifying. The discovery of a large number of wells, tanks and public baths in the ruins found on the banks of the Indus river hints upon the idea of self-purification of the body which was a prelude to any worship. In all probabilities, like the water of the Ganga, the water of the Indus river received equal reverence from the inhabitants of the civilization.
Worship of stones or other objects:
Another peculiarity of Harappan religious belief was the worship of stones in the form of linga and yoni as sources of potency. One terracotta piece from Kalingbangan shows pictures of linga and yoni on one seal. Most probably such seals were worshipped by the Harappans. But there is no definite knowledge whether linga and yoni were worshipped separately symbolizing Shiva and Shakti.
Chrematheism:
The linga and yoni worship by the Harappans was associated with chrematheism, as illustrated in the worship of sacred incense burneio. A number of clay tablets, rings, terracotta cakes found from the ruins suggest their use in rituals. There are seals carrying the figure of a unicorn and other sacred animals associated with altar or dhoopdani.
Demonophobia:
Like most primitive inhabitants of other civilisations the Harappan people harboured faith in magic and charms. Their blind belief in the existence of spirits prompted them to have faith in various practices of black magic to get rid of their evil influence.
Practice of Yoga:
The last aspect of Harappan religion attached much importance to the practice of Yoga. A large number of terracotta figurines show individuals in various yogic postures or asanas. The Harappans practised yoga for both physical exercise and as religious rites.
As a matter of fact modern Hinduism possesses many of the above features of Harappan religious faith and practices. The worship of Mother Goddess, worship of Shiva in both iconic and phallic form, worship of free spirits, trees, animals and other popular features of Hinduism were well established in India long before the origin of Vedic civilisation. Shaivism and Shaktism of later period owe their origin to Harappan culture. In the words of Wheeler,
“The Indus Valley Civilisation was a melange of much that already know of third millennium Asiatic religious observance augmented by specific manifestations of later Hinduism.” Therefore, we cannot but conclude with the words of R.C. Majumdar that there is “an organic relationship between the ancient culture of Indus valley and the Hinduism of today. In a real sense the religion of Indus people was a linear progenitor of Hinduism.”
Legacy of Harappan Culture:
Harappan civilization is the most ancient civilization of Indian history. It gave to the world the first taste of urban life. Their highly developed civic life had its manifestations in their socio-cultural habits and practices. The Harappan social life was well-regulated and systematic. Various facets of their social activities as well as trends give us a picture of their decent style of living by our ancestors. In fact, modern Indian life owes much of its origin to Harappan culture. To them goes the credit for producing the earliest specimens of pottery, harnessing animals for use by humans and innovating creative use of leisure.
The religious legacy left by the Harappans is equally praiseworthy. The foundation of Hindu religion was laid during this period upon which the superstructure was raised later by the Aryans. The Hindu religious beliefs, myths, traditions etc. have in a sense deep-rooted connection with the Harappan religious ways. After coming to limelight in 1922 A.D., this ancient culture has established the fact that it has greatly contributed to the essence of modern Indian life.
V.G. Childe has rightly remarked in his book, “New Light on Most Ancient East”,
“Indus Civilisation represents a very perfect adjustment of human life to a specific environment that can only have resulted from years of patient effort. And it forms the basis of modern Indian culture.”
To conclude with the words of Sir John Marshall,
“The Indus Valley Civilisation has been mainly an independent and indigenous growth, a product of the Indian soil marked by certain specifically Indian features not present in any other early civilization. Indeed the Indus Valley civilisation is no less individual and national than other great river valley civilizations of antiquity.”
Related Articles:
Learning Objective
- Identify how artifacts and ruins provided insight into the IRV’s technology, economy, and culture
Key Points
- The Indus River Valley Civilization, also known as Harappan civilization, developed the first accurate system of standardized weights and measures, some as accurate as to 1.6 mm.
- Harappans created sculpture, seals, pottery, and jewelry from materials, such as terracotta, metal, and stone.
- Evidence shows Harappans participated in a vast maritime trade network extending from Central Asia to modern-day Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and Syria.
- The Indus Script remains indecipherable without any comparable symbols, and is thought to have evolved independently of the writing in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
terms
steatite
Also known as Soapstone, steatite is a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is very soft and has been a medium for carving for thousands of years.
Indus Script
Symbols produced by the ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
Ancient Harappan Society
chalcolithic period
A period also known as the Copper Age, which lasted from 4300-3200 BCE.
The Indus Valley Civilization is the earliest known culture of the Indian subcontinent of the kind now called “urban” (or centered on large municipalities), and the largest of the four ancient civilizations, which also included Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. The society of the Indus River Valley has been dated from the Bronze Age, the time period from approximately 3300-1300 BCE. It was located in modern-day India and Pakistan, and covered an area as large as Western Europe.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, emerging around 2600 BCE along the Indus River Valley in the Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. Their discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries provided important archaeological data regarding the civilization’s technology, art, trade, transportation, writing, and religion.
The people of the Indus Valley, also known as Harappan (Harappa was the first city in the region found by archaeologists), achieved many notable advances in technology, including great accuracy in their systems and tools for measuring length and mass.
Harappans were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures that conformed to a successive scale. The smallest division, approximately 1.6 mm, was marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, a prominent Indus Valley city in the modern Indian state of Gujarat. It stands as the smallest division ever recorded on a Bronze Age scale. Another indication of an advanced measurement system is the fact that the bricks used to build Indus cities were uniform in size.
Harappans demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage developed and used in cities throughout the region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East, and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.
Harappans were thought to have been proficient in seal carving, the cutting of patterns into the bottom face of a seal, and used distinctive seals for the identification of property and to stamp clay on trade goods. Seals have been one of the most commonly discovered artifacts in Indus Valley cities, decorated with animal figures, such as elephants, tigers, and water buffalos.
Cracking The Culture Harappan Society Answers
Harappans also developed new techniques in metallurgy—the science of working with copper, bronze, lead, and tin—and performed intricate handicraft using products made of the semi-precious gemstone, Carnelian.
Indus Valley excavation sites have revealed a number of distinct examples of the culture’s art, including sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite—more commonly known as Soapstone.
Among the various gold, terracotta, and stone figurines found, a figure of a “Priest-King” displayed a beard and patterned robe. Another figurine in bronze, known as the “Dancing Girl,” is only 11 cm. high and shows a female figure in a pose that suggests the presence of some choreographed dance form enjoyed by members of the civilization. Terracotta works also included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. In addition to figurines, the Indus River Valley people are believed to have created necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments.
The civilization’s economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The Harappan Civilization may have been the first to use wheeled transport, in the form of bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today. It also appears they built boats and watercraft—a claim supported by archaeological discoveries of a massive, dredged canal, and what is regarded as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal.
Compare Aryan And Harappan Cultures
Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops, including minerals from Iran and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedar wood floated down rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir. Other trade goods included terracotta pots, gold, silver, metals, beads, flints for making tools, seashells, pearls, and colored gem stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise.
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations. Harappan seals and jewelry have been found at archaeological sites in regions of Mesopotamia, which includes most of modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Syria. Long-distance sea trade over bodies of water, such as the Arabian Sea, Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, may have become feasible with the development of plank watercraft that was equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
During 4300-3200 BCE of the Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age, the Indus Valley Civilization area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200-2600 BCE), cultural similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, and ornaments document caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.
Harappans are believed to have used Indus Script, a language consisting of symbols. A collection of written texts on clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which have been carbon dated 3300-3200 BCE, contain trident-shaped, plant-like markings. This Indus Script suggests that writing developed independently in the Indus River Valley Civilization from the script employed in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
As many as 600 distinct Indus symbols have been found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots, and more than a dozen other materials. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which are very small. The longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (or 2.54 cm.) square, is 17 signs long. The characters are largely pictorial, but include many abstract signs that do not appear to have changed over time.
The inscriptions are thought to have been primarily written from right to left, but it is unclear whether this script constitutes a complete language. Without a “Rosetta Stone” to use as a comparison with other writing systems, the symbols have remained indecipherable to linguists and archaeologists.
A Rosetta Stone for the Indus script, lecture by Rajesh Rao. Rajesh Rao is fascinated by “the mother of all crossword puzzles,” how to decipher the 4,000-year-old Indus script. At TED 2011, he explained how he was enlisting modern computational techniques to read the Indus language. View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/a-rosetta-stone-for-the-indus-script-rajesh-rao
The Harappan religion remains a topic of speculation. It has been widely suggested that the Harappans worshipped a mother goddess who symbolized fertility. In contrast to Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization seems to have lacked any temples or palaces that would give clear evidence of religious rites or specific deities. Some Indus Valley seals show a swastika symbol, which was included in later Indian religions including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Many Indus Valley seals also include the forms of animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others showing chimeric creations, leading scholars to speculate about the role of animals in Indus Valley religions. One seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger. This may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of a monster created by Aruru, the Sumerian earth and fertility goddess, to fight Gilgamesh, the hero of an ancient Mesopotamian epic poem. This is a further suggestion of international trade in Harappan culture.